Random thoughts of a Monty Python fan

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

What is the role of knowledge in learning?

Previous knowledge aids in the acquisition of new knowledge.  What we know and how we learned it can predict how we learn in the future.   All future knowledge is built upon a foundation based upon previous knowledge.  “Knowledge determines to a great extent what we will pay attention to, perceive, learn, remember, and forget,” (p 249).

What is the human information processing model of memory?

The human information processing model of memory explains how memory is processed and organized for storage and retrieval.  Information is retrieved and encoded into the sensory memory.  This is where your perception of the information and attention weed out what will be kept and passed into the working memory for future availability.  Information passed into the working memory combines with knowledge from the long-term memory and becomes part of long-term memory itself.  Once in the long-term memory, information can be accessed and directed to the working memory.  Implicit memory is what has shaped our behavior or thoughts without our conscious recalling of the learning that caused it.  Implicit memories are activated when information flows into the sensory memory, but skip the working memory, and flow through the long-term memory causing “knowledge influences” without a person ever being aware of the process.

What are declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge?

“Declarative knowledge is knowledge that can be declared, through words and symbol systems of all kinds,” (p 258).  It allows you to “know” something.  It allows you to know specific or general facts, and personal preferences.  It’s the reason you know you don’t like science fiction novels or the smell of Chanel #5.  Declarative knowledge is also the knowledge of rules (examples are mathematical rules).  This type of knowledge can be stored by chunking similar knowledge into larger, broader “units” (p 258).  The example from the book is the organization of principles of reinforcement and punishment into a theory of behavioral learning.

Procedural knowledge is the ability to put your knowledge into action by demonstration.  Procedural knowledge flows well out of declarative knowledge.  A person can know how to kit but, until she puts her knowledge into practice, no one will ever see the results of that knowledge. 

Conditional knowledge is knowing when to apply declarative and procedural knowledge, and why you are applying it.  You may know how to shift gears in the car and have the ability to shift but if you don’t apply that knowledge and ability at the appropriate moment, your car will stall (or you drop your transmission).

How do perception, attention, schemas, and scripts influence learning and remembering?

Perception influences learning and remembering by taking our previous knowledge, combining it with physical representations from our world.  By doing this, the stimulus is assigned a meaning.  It is then stored in your memory based on the outcome of the combination and the meaning assigned.  A great example is given on page 251 of our text.  Without the previous knowledge to be able to categorize a new piece of information, it may be perceived as unimportant and not stored for future retrieval.

Attention is the limited, selective process by which we focus on certain stimuli while ignoring others.  This limits what is perceived and processed.  It is influenced by all three memory processes as well as, what is going on around you, how complex a task you are attempting, your ability to focus.  A personal example was learning to drive a stick shift and steer at the same time.  I could shift or I could steer but, I couldn’t do both at the same time.  Once I mastered the clutch it became something I did automatically and, I could concentrate more on my steering.  After driving for many years, both became more or less automatic.  I drive an automatic minivan now so if I got behind the wheel of a standard, I’d have to concentrate more on using the clutch because I am out of practice.

Schemas are like a person’s storage bins of information.  Each bin is labeled with pertinent information about its contents.  Each person will have their own set of bins, labeled specifically for their information.  Knowledge is taken in and bins sorted through to make meaning out of what was learned (see example on page 260). 

Scripts are schemas of the “typical sequence of events in an everyday situation,” (p 261).  An example would be your morning routine during the week.  You get up, you shower, you get dressed, you eat, and so forth.

What is the role of metacognition in learning and remembering?

Metacognition is what allows us to assess and adapt our own learning style to better retain what is learned.  It tells you what you need to do to learn (declarative knowledge), how to use the knowledge (procedural knowledge), and where and when to use the knowledge (conditional knowledge).   Using these three strategies a person “can accomplish goals and solve problems,” (p 267).  Metacognitive knowledge contains three skills:

1.      Planning – This entails how to start, what you will need to accomplish the task, what order to proceed in, strategies to use, and how much time to spend on the task.

2.      Monitoring (real-time awareness) – This is where a person continues to ask how they are doing, is what they are doing making any sense and, are they paying too much attention to the task.

3.      Evaluating – This is where a person makes judgments on the task at hand.  Should anything be changed?  Should they drop it for now and try again later?

What are the stages in the development of cognitive skills?

Cognitive – This is the stage where learning first starts in relies on declarative and general problem-solving skills.  A person has to think about each step in the learning process (i.e. following instructions to assemble something).  It requires a lot of working memory and can be quite a trial and error process.

Associative – At this stage chunking of steps in a process is accomplished.  Chunking the first three digits, second two digits, and last four digits of a social security number is an example.  It would be hard to memorize all 9 numbers but by chunking, it becomes easier.

Autonomous – At this stage the procedure becomes almost automatic.  It can be done without much thought and along with other distractions.  An example is when you are asking your kids not to try and kill each other while you call your spouse and pick out groceries.

What is learning?

Learning is a change in behavior or knowledge caused by an experience.  This change must be relatively permanent and caused by the interaction of a person with her environment.  Temporary changes such as from maturation or an illness are not a part of the learning process. 

What are the similarities and differences among contiguity and operant conditioning?

Similarities

·         Both result in a behavioral change due to associations.

·         Both can have extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination.

·         Repetition is important in both.

·         Timing is important in both.

Differences

Contiguity focuses on the learning of an involuntary (reflex) emotional or physiological response to previously neutral stimuli.   

Contiguity contains a: neutral stimulus, unconditional stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning is the concept that a person’s learning is the result of voluntary (not reflex) interaction with their environment.

Operant Conditioning involves an action and a consequence of that action.

What are examples of four different kinds of consequences that can follow any behavior, and what effect is each likely to have on future behavior?

1.      Positive reinforcement.  An example of positive reinforcement is to give a dog a treat every time it sits.  The dog would learn to sit on command and hold it until the treat is delivered.

2.      Negative reinforcement involves the disappearance of an aversive situation to solicit a positive behavior.   A good example from our book is to buckle your seatbelt to turn off that annoying buzzer.

3.      Presentation punishment. An example would be running laps and extra work.

4.      Removal punishment.  An example would be sitting out at recess.

How could you use applied behavior analysis (group consequences, token economics, contingency) to solve common academic or behavior problems?

1.      Group consequences- I am in agreement with the book in that group consequence can be beneficial.  I prefer to use the class as a whole, rather than separating the class into teams.  I feel that the class is a cohesive unit, not a team sport to pit one set of students against the others.  I would use group consequences to maintain a low level of volume in the class.  I feel that student interaction and conversation has its place in the classroom, but not to the point that it disturbs learning.

2.      Token economics – I’m not a big fan of token economics for general education classes.  I have seen a class refuse to work without being given tokens.  Learning should be a reward in itself.  I do use it in my special education classroom to reward good weekly behavior.  I choose a student who has done exceptionally well to receive “big treasure box”.  Any students who have done well during the week get “little treasure box”.  Students who have done poorly for the week do not receive treasure box for that week.  I make sure to tell them that next week is a brand new chance to earn “treasure box”.

3.      Contingency contract – I would use a contingency contract with students who were either struggling to keep up their work, or were discipline problems in the classroom.  I would, however, consult with the school counselor on how the contract should be drawn up.  I would also meet with the student, in the counselor’s office, to discuss the contract and any issues the student might have with it.

What is cognitive behavior modification and how does it apply to teaching?

Cognitive behavior modification is based on behavioral and cognitive learning principles.  The student learns to manage their own behavior through self-talk and thinking things through.

Young children reach a stage where they talk things through out loud, instead of thinking to themselves.  They simply haven’t developed that ability.  Cognitive behavior modification can help the student progress from talking to themselves out loud, to whispering to themselves, and finally to using private speech to guide himself.

In my special education classroom we use a “how to calm down” chart.  It helps guide the students through some stages to help when they’re angry.  We model to the students how to use the chart, have them practice when they aren’t angry, and finally set them in front of it when the occasion arises.  Personally, I love this technique.

What is the difference between the melting pot and multicultural education?

The melting pot is assimilation in the school.  Different cultures are to learn to speak
English, and become “Americanized.”  In multicultural education, consideration for cultural differences is recognized.  Students are taught to appreciate the culture from which they came. The students’ cultures are used to teach concepts in the classroom.  The learning styles of different cultures are taken into account when teaching.

What is culture and what groups make up your own cultural identity?

Culture is the knowledge, values, attitudes and traditions that guide the behavior of a group of people to allow them to solve the problems of living in their environment, as well as the art and artifacts produced and passed down to the next generation. 

The groups that make up my cultural identity are: 

            The area in which I was raised- Virginia

            My ethnicity- German, Irish, English, Scottish ancestry

            My religious up-bringing- Unity Church

            My race- Caucasian

            My gender – Female

            My social class – Middle Class

Why does the school achievement of low-income students often fall below that of middle to upper income students?

There can be environmental factors such as: breathing more polluted air, lead paint ingestion, lack of prenatal care, and a lack of proper nutrition.  The family living in poverty may concentrate more on survival and less on education.  A lack of technology in the home and not attending a good preschool and cause the students to be behind in Kindergarten.  Because they may dress in pre-owned clothes, and can be less familiar to common school rules and activities, they may be labeled as LD or simply thought of as unintelligent.  Lower expectations by the school can lead to the student thinking they aren’t smart enough for schoolwork.  They start putting forth any effort and may drop out of school.

What are some examples of conflicts and compatibilities between home and school cultures?

Some cultures value behaviors that aren’t accepted in a school setting.  Differences in conducting interpersonal relationships may be misunderstood.  Holiday customs may interfere with attendance and lead to written notices home regarding time spent in the classroom.  Different cultures have differing values placed on education.

Some cultures are taught that education is vitally important.  They develop behaviors and attitudes that are more in line with school rules and expectations.

What is the school’s role in the development of gender differences?

Schools, family, and the environment mold children into gender schemas (knowledge about what it means to be male or female).  Schools tend to have gender biased textbooks, where males and females are portrayed in a stereotypical fashion.  Video and computer games used in the classroom contain more boys than girls.  

What is effective teaching in bilingual education classrooms?

Teaching bilingual students to read in their native language can help the students adjust to English in the future.  The students learn the basics of reading and then are able to use them when learning to read in English.  Teaching subjects in the students native language can help obtain information regarding the learning level of the student.  Having native English language learners in the same class as the ELL students can lead to the learning of English by the ELL students and the acquisition of some words in another language for the English speakers.  Having bilingual teachers is the best option for inclusion classrooms.  That way all of the students can be taught at once.

What are examples of culturally relevant pedagogy that fit the grades and subjects you will teach?

Experiencing success in the classroom will be an important part of my classroom.  All of my students’ successes will be celebrated, no matter how small.

The students’ cultures will be studied during the year.  I will use technology; have the student and their parent teach the students about their culture.  I will have books on different cultures on my bookshelf.  Perhaps a KWL chart and a comparison chart can be used.

I will study the cultures of the students in my classroom so that I can better understand their learning style.  I will then have a better understanding of why the students behave in a different manner.  From there I can develop a relationship with the student.

Identify and explain 3 ideas that you were made aware of and now feel comfortable with.

I now have a better understanding of seizure disorders.  A student with a seizure disorder always made me feel nervous.  In my mind, I always saw them as they are portrayed on TV.  As flopping around and needing to be held down to ensure no injury occurred.  I can now see that there are different types of seizures and know what to look for.  A generalized seizure is the one most closely associated with those on TV.  But I now know that all I have to do is give the student enough space so that they don’t hurt themselves.  I can put a soft object under their head to avoid it banging on the floor, and remove any hard objects.

The seizure that I was not familiar with is the absence seizure.  These can go completely undetected unless the teacher is familiar with the signs.  The student staring off into space, failing to respond to questions, dropping things, or missing what has happened in class.  The nurse should advise the teacher that the student has these types of seizures so that she can look for them.

I now understand more about gifted students.  I thought that gifted students excelled in all areas of academics (Doogie Howser syndrome.  Too much TV!).  I know know that most of them do well in only certain subject areas.  I liked that consideration is given to how these students are emotionally.  That it is sometimes inappropriate to move them up a grade.  I also liked that these students could be moved up for certain subjects and in their regular classroom for others.

I was relieved to see a section on the Individualized Education Program (IEP).  I deal with students who have and IEP and the explaination in the book gave me a lot of information in easy language.  I learned that the school AND the parents are involved in what services will be provided.  That the IEP is written by a team of people (parents, general education teacher, special education teacher, etc.)  That way a more rounded interpretation of what the student needs can be stated.

Identify and explain three points that you want to consider further.

I’d like to spend some more time with the topic of autism.  The austic student has “a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction…that affects the child’s educational performance,” (Woolfolk, 2007).  We have 2 classrooms with autistic students at my school.  I am fascinated by how they see the world.  My first reaction to these students was that they were seeing things that the general population couldn’t see.  Perhaps they don’t see people most of the time, but are totally fixed in another dimension.  All of these students have something in their eyes.  I know that they’re in there somewhere, living in their own time and place. 

Person-first language gave me tips on how to address the special circumstances of the student in a better language.  To put the word “student, person, or child” before any identifier.  An example from the book is “A student with a learning disability NOT A learning disabled student.”  I would like to go into more depth and find more ways to address each persons disability/challenge.

I would like to learn more about learning preferences.  I have many different numbers for types of learning styles.  The book states that their are contrasting opinions about whether allowing a student to study in their “preferred setting” lets the student learn more, or if it makes no difference in their learning ability.  I know that I learn better when I study in a quiet place.  Stick me in a noisy area and I completely lose focus.  It would be interesting to see the numbers on this topic.

Identify two questions that you continue to have about this topic.

I have no clue what Spearman was talking about when he described the mental attribute of the g. 

I don’t get why scientists are still measuring people on the IQ scale when there are so many people of different origins who may not do well.  Isn’t there a much better way?  How about forgetting how intelligent people are and treat them as the individuals that they are?

1.  What are Erikson’s stages of psychosocial developments and are there any implications of his theory for teaching.

• Basic trust vs. mistrust
• Autonomy vs. shame/doubt
• Initiative vs. guilt
• Industry vs. inferiority
• Identity vs. isolation (confusion of role)
• Intimacy vs. isolation
• Gernerativity vs. stagnation
• Ego intergrity vs. despair

In order for a student to be able to trust her teacher, she must first have developed the ability to trust an adult.  The ability to trust comes from the relationship the child developed with her initial caregiver.  If this trust isn’t built in the early stages of the child’s development, she will have a hard time trusting her teacher.  Without this trust, the student may never feel accepted and comfortable in the classroom.

During the Autonomy stage the child learns to take care of herself in minor skills (feeding, dressing, and potty).  If the parent does too much for the child, she may begin to doubt that she can accomplish these skills, leading to doubting of her capabilities.  She may have trouble believing in abilities, causing her to do poorly in her studies.

In the Initiative vs. guilt stage the child learns to control their environment to a small degree. They learn that they can’t act on every thought that they have.  The child needs to be monitored, but not to such an extent as to make the child feel that they can’t do anything right.

All of the previous stages take place starting at the home and moving through preschool.  The next stages take place in the school system, where the teacher has to learn about each child on an individual basis.  She will most likely be starting from scratch as most preschools don’t send information about a child to the school.  Therefore, the teacher must model good examples, assuming that the students have no previous knowledge about how to act in a social setting.

2.  How can teachers foster genuine and appropriate self-esteem in their students?

The teacher must recognize all students for trying their best and noting any accomplishments.  By doing this, she will teach the students that they are respected not for their grades, but for trying their hardest.  Teachers can set up a “buddy system” where they spend a few minutes a day asking students how they are and finding out important aspects of the students’ lives.  Just by taking these few moments, the teacher shows the students that they are worthwhile human beings. 

3.  What are the roles of peers, cliques, and friendships in students’ lives?

Peers can have positive or negative effects on students.  They teach students to conform to the groups rules, which can actually have a beneficial effect in the future.  Whether a student is motivated and achieving can be determined by the friends kept.  The opposite, a student who is not accepted by peers, causes less participation in class and can lead to drop out.  Friends are often the only person a student will talk to in tough times, when they think the adults in their lives won’t understand. 

4. What are Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning and the challenges to his work?

• Pre-conventional moral reasoning
• Conventional moral reasoning
• Post conventional moral reasoning

“The stages do not seem to be sparate, sequenced and consistent…People often reflect several different stages simultaneously.  Or a person’s choices in one instance may fit one stage and his or her decisions in a different situation may reflect a different stage,” (Woolfolk).

5.  What encourages cheating and aggression in classrooms and how can teachers respond to each?

People cheat when they have severe pressure to excel.  Often this pressure comes from the family.  Students who feel “stupid” may cheat to get a good grade, but then feel even more of a failure later.    Aggression can come from abuse at home.  It’s better to get a head start on violence than take a beating yourself.  Violence can come from violence on TV.  Sometimes the student feels that the outcome on TV will be reflected in real life.  The teacher can reduce violence by being non-violent herself.  She then models what can be an alternative to lashing out.  She can praise a usually violent student for restraint in situations that would usually cause an outburst.

6. What can teachers do to support students as they face challenges and risks today?

The teacher needs to actually care about her students and treat them as the individuals they are.  Taking time to talk to each student can relay to that student that she is appreciated.  The teacher needs to be observant and notice when something seems not right with a student.  She can then talk to that student and help them come up with solutions.  A session with the school counselor could be in order.  I think it all boils down to appreciating each student as special.  If you respect them, they will show you respect and know that you truly care about them.  If they trust you, they will come to you in tough times for advice.  That’s when you know you’ve truly made it as a teacher.

I understand the concept of ZPD.  What I was saying is that in a class, you have those who already know the information (bored and acting out) and those who aren’t ready to learn the concept (angry and acting out).  When the teacher can adapt her lessons so that everyone can comprehend the lesson with her scaffolding, then you see a class where most students are paying attention to the lesson.  Sorry about the confusion.

My four ideas that I was made aware of and now feel comfortable with are:

     1.  Teaching in the Magic Middle (Zone of Proximal Development)- According to Woolfolk, the ZPG “is the area between the child’s current development level as determined by independent problem solving, and the level of development that the child could achieve through adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (p. 44).  As a paraprofessional, I have seen the three process in action.  I have seen students, who are grasping a concept, act out because they are bored with a lesson.  I have also seen students act out because they don’t understand the concept of what was being taught.  Some become sullen, and others interrupt their neighbors.  When the teacher is teaching at a level for all students, I see a class that is paying attention to the teacher and not being a distraction in class.

     2.  The Vygotskian Principle of scaffolding is another idea that I understand and feel comfortable with.  By showing the students how a lesson works, and activating their background knowledge, teachers are scaffolding different ways to learn the same lesson.  Scaffolding can be done by teachers and peers.

     3.  I also feel comfortable with is self-directed talk or “egocentric speech”.  This “is another example of how higher mental functions appear first between people as they communicate and regulate each others’ behavior, and then emerge again within the individual as cognitive processes” (p43).  It is how students make sense of their work, and solve different “cognitive activities” (p.43).  The talking, mumbling, and whispering aid the studentIt makes a difference in how I will react to students talking through lesson problems and reading in class.  I will be more understanding of younger students whispering in class.  I will not enforce an “all quiet” classroom during individual activites.

     4.  Cognitive Development and Culture- I found this concept to be obvious, but one that I hadn’t thought of.  The thought that children from different cultures view the same lesson differently, was easily observed in the classroom when I actually looked for it. 

Three points that I want to consider further

     1.  Piaget’s four stage’s of cognitive development interested me, but I felt it could have broken down better.  I would have liked to see each period (sensorimotor, object permanence, etc.) as their own topic under Infancy: The Sensorimotor Stage.  The other Stages would follow a similar format.  I understand the basics of each stage, the how and why they are broken up the way they are.  I understand that each stage occurs in series.  What I don’t understand is why Piaget gave ages for each stage when they can occur at different rates.

     2.  I would like to spend more time thinking about Conservation.  This states that a student can recognize that if nothing is added to a substance, even if it changes in shape, that it has the same amount.  the book gave the example of Leah, a student who can’t determine why the amount of liquid in a glass remains the same, no matter what size of glass it is put into.  I would like to try this in my own classroom to test this principle.

     3.  I like the idea that play is important for learning (Maria Montessori).  A lot of teachers use teaching games during centers. I have a friend who has started a Montessori school.  I plan on asking her more about this method.

Two questions I still have-

     1.  I’m still not clear on catastrophe theory.

     2.  Cultural tools and cognitive development confuse me a bit.  I will have to spend a little more time reading and researching this concept.

I was amazed at all of the information I received from this chapter.  I was so impressed that I tried the more positive methods at the school where I work.  I learned how to better address a student who was making bad choices.  I got to try out how to better manage the transitions in the classroom when the teacher was out for a day.  It was harder than I thought.  I work with Special Ed students and they resist any changes to the classroom.  But, with some fast thinking on my part, I was able to control and prevent any disasters.  I kept them busy with more assignments than usual, and with a movie that assisted the present curriculum.  Our classroom is already set up in centers form, so it made for easy transitions from one to the other.

In my future classroom, I will make sure that I am as prepared as possible.  I will organize the classroom to make transitions smooth.  By arranging the classroom in this way I will make managing the students easier.  The students will know exactly where each center is located, keeping the students from randomly roaming the classroom.

I believe that managing the classroom encourages student learning by making sure that all of the students are doing what they are supposed to do.  If you keep the curriculum flowing, you have less of a chance that things will get out of hand.

The curriculum should be something that the students can relate to, and hold their interest.  Giving a history lesson without explaining how it has affected the lives of the students, is no lesson at all.  It is simply the teacher talking about something in the past.  There is no connection to how it plays a part of their lives.

I liked Chapter 12.  It gave a lot of useful information for my future classroom.  It is helping me today, with the students I teach.  It has also helped me tell the other paraprofessionals other ways to deal with the students.

I read the INTASC Standards and was happily surprised to see that they basically put together the statements that I feel are important to education.

Under content pedagogy, the statement that the students need meaningful instruction by a teacher that has knowledge in the subject she is teaching was perfect in my book.  I agree that teachers need to have not only knowledge about their subject, but knowledge about what makes the students tick.  How children learn and why they learn that way are important aspects of teaching.  I have heard that their are 12 different types of learners.  A smart teacher researches each of these ways in order to adapt her teaching methods to suit each student.  Not all types will be addressed in the classroom, but the majority will benefit by these adaptations.

Teachers should be able to use many different approaches to learning strategies.  Critical thinking, problem solving, and performance skills aren’t only learned through academics.  The teacher needs to reach outside the box in order to reach every student.  Motivating 20 or so students isn’t easy.  The teacher needs to know the classroom dynamics, and individual personalities in order to keep the students motivated and in their seats.

I think Smart Boards are the greatest invention on earth.  The have the perfect combination of hands-on learning and visual interest.  What student doesn’ love to go up there and write or move things around?  Shoot.  I love to do it and, according to my students, I’m ancient.  The computer is another favorite.  The students are learning while playing games.  They basically go comotose, and suck up information.

The planning of classroom instruction takes a lot of collaboration between each grade team.  The students and teachers benefit from the input of each team member.  Assessment should be an ongoing process.  The teacher uses standardized as well as observational techniques.  Instruction should be adapted to benefit each learner.  The teacher should constantly question her decisions.  She should seek out the opinions of her team members to help make better decisions in the future.

Teachers should know each students parents, gaining information about the students’ home lives.  They should be able to communicate effectively with parents, co-workers, and anyone else that has an interest in the lives of the students.

I feel that these ten standards represent what it is to be an excellent teacher.  Every one of them has something important to say that will enhance the classroom experience for both teacher and students.  I will strive to meet all of these criteria in my teaching career.  If I meet them, I feel I will be an excellent teacher.

I will add my thoughts on this week asap.  I just wanted to make sure it was up and running.